Characterization Of Amyloid Fibrils and Protective Effects Of Silibinin - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 2083 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2019/03/18 Category Analytics Essay Level High school Tags: Characterization Essay Did you like this example? Amyloid fibrils are abnormal, fibrous protein deposits that grow on the outer membrane of the cells. They are insoluble and do not function to provide structural support or motility in humans. Amyloids are known to show major impact on diseases like Alzheimers and type II diabetes which progress over a period of time and are associated with high mortality (1). Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Characterization Of Amyloid Fibrils and Protective Effects Of Silibinin" essay for you Create order There are no effective treatments known for amyloid-related diseases, therefore, searching for compounds that can effectively inhibit the formation of amyloid fibrils and/or disaggregate the preformed amyloid fibrils will act as a more promising treatment (2, 3). Silibinin are extracted from the medicinal plant Silybum marianum, also known as milk thistle, and have traditionally been used for the treatment of liver diseases (4). In a research, it was shown that silibinin could interrupt the complex structure of the amyloid protein, and transform the fibrils into shapeless aggregates hence decreasing its effects on the amyloid-related diseases (5). However, there are various forms of amyloid-fibril proteins. This paper focuses on amyloid-fibril formation and their characterization in various different amyloid-fibril proteins. Further, this paper will explore cytotoxicity induced by amyloid fibrils affecting patients who take insulin. The term amyloid was coined initially by Schleiden and then by Virchow in the mid-19th century to describe the iodine stained deposits seen in the liver at an autopsy. Initially, the deposits were thought to be high in carbohydrate until their high nitrogen content was later established. However, the inaccurate name persisted despite the discovery of its highly proteinaceous composition (7). Through microscopic studies and transmission electron micrographs, it was confirmed that amyloid carried a fibrillar or thread-like structure. Further advances in the biomedical and biophysical arena helped to isolate amyloid fibrils from the tissues and use X-ray fiber diffraction to exhibit the cross- structure (8, 9). Amyloid fibrils are highly stable and insoluble which makes them very useful in a large number of naturally occurring bionanotechnology. However, fibrils can also be dest ructive as they have the ability to accumulate in the tissue and form basis of diseases or aggravate a given disease (1). In order to understand more about amyloid fibrils, it was necessary to isolate them without completely dissociating them. The highly stable structure of amyloid fibrils made it hard to isolate them from the tissues without affecting its structural integrity of the fibrils. Therefore it became necessary to devise an effective method of isolation. Cohen and Calkins in their paper, The Isolation of amyloid fibrils and a study of the effect of collagenase and hyaluronidase, provided an effective method to isolate the amyloid fibrils without destroying their structural integrity. Hepatic tissues with excessive amyloid fibrils were extracted from post-mortem patients and was extracted using subsequent centrifugation and washing. The extracted fibrils and normal liver tissue as a control were then treated with the enzymes collagenase and hyaluronidase and then centrifuged. On observing it in the electron microscope, it was noted that only the amyloid fibril rich liver tissues showed fibrils, hence a new technique to isolate fibrils was discovered (9). Cohen and Calkins work was also one of the primary works to identify that fibril, a major component of amyloid, is not a collagen. It was also identified that fibrils do not contain high amounts of hyaluronic ac id, making it less soluble in water (1,9). In order to identify if collagen is the primary component of the fibrils, the fibrils were treated with a buffer and collagenase solution as the control and experimental reactions. The collagenase based reaction was incubated at different time periods to identify if there as more growth in the collagenase based solutions. The quantity of the fibrils was found to be roughly the same in the control and the experimental preparations at different time intervals. Ineffectiveness of collagenase indicated that there was no collagen present in the fibrils as in the presence of collagenase, the fibrils would have grown if they had collagen in them (9). Isolation of amyloid fibrils sparked a growth in the research based on amyloid fibrils and the diseases associated with amyloid fibrils. In a study, Westermark isolated amyloid from a lymph node of a medullary thyroid carcinoma, using the method devised by Cohen and Calkin. It was found in this study that amyloid fibrils carried major protein unit. The presence of a major subunit brought about a major advancement in understanding the structure of amyloid fibrils which later helped in finding an inhibition mechanism for amyloid formation, that affects diseases like Alzheimers and diabetes type I (9, 10, 11). The structure of the fibril isolated from the thyroid c arcinoma was studied by isolating a tumor tissue from a patient having medullary thyroid carcinoma with metastases. The amyloid was isolated using collagenase enzyme, as shown by Cohen and Calkins. After the centrifugation in the presence of required buffers, it was run using an SDS page to separate the different protein components. The acquired protein was then purified using gel filtration and observed under an electron microscope. The amyloid fibrils were observed in the form of small clumps. On performing spectrophotometry, it was confirmed that no peaks were shown in the range where amyloid fibril would normally be observed. Knowledge of the structure of amyloid fibrils helps in understanding the process of pathology of the amyloidoses and provides a structure of rational design for drugs to inhibit or reverse amyloid formation (11). This can be beneficial in various diseases like diabetes and Alzheimers. It has been suggested that nearly all proteins have the ability to form amyloid under certain conditions, which has implications for the understanding of protein folding (12). Amyloid precursor proteins do not share a common size, sequence or secondary structure, yet the mature fibrils appear to share similar highly organized multimolecular morphology and mechanisms of toxicity (13). This indicated that there is a possible connection in the formation of different types of amyloid fibrils. Sletten et al in their study characterizing amyloid fibril proteins further elabo rated that human amyloid fibrils contain two different components: one soluble and the more heterogeneous component. The soluble component is called the P component and is immunologically homogeneous meaning they are made of same kind of proteins. The other component, the fibril, is more heterogeneous meaning that it is made of different kind of proteins. Amyloid fibrils were first acquired from lymph nodes of the medullary carcinoma of the thyroid and isolated using the Cohen and Calkins method of enzyme degradation. Antisera against amyloid proteins prepared and treated to the fibrils. Finally gel filtration and SDS page were conducted in order to look at the various band indicating proteins of different sizes and charges (14). As discussed earlier, two different components were found. It was also observed that the fibrils mainly consisted of a low molecular weight protein which was immunologically distinct and did not react with various antisera against known amyloid fibril proteins (15). In a study it was shown that the influence of the number of non-fibrillar or the P-component on amyloid related diseases is well known. However the authors noted that non-fibrillar proteins increase protein strength and density of the local interactions of fibrils, causing them to forma compact, and localized structure, as seen in different amyloid related diseases. Therefore, the soluble component, or the P-component play an important role in forming aggregation state and solubility of the amyloid fibrils, he nce affecting amyloidoses or amyloid deposits (19) Amyloid deposits have varied origins and chemical compositions, however they still have common systematic forms. The common systemic forms as seen in Sletten et al., are related to the serum amyloid protein or immunoglobulin chains but in amyloidosis the fibril proteins may contain hormone-like peptides such as procalcitonin in medullary carcinoma of thyroid and islet polypeptide in pancreatic islets, especially in Type 2 diabetes (15, 16, 17). Insulin, a polypeptide, has long been known to be capable of conversion in vitro to a fibrillar, amyloid-like, form (16). Fibrillary insulin has recently been demonstrated clinically significant localised amyloidosis in microscopic quantities around the needle tip after prolonged subcutaneous infusions of insulin in rats, and in a human diabetic subject (18). In a study done in 1988, major amyloid fibril protein was extracted and, by means of its amino acid composition and amino acid sequence, it was shown to contain intact insulin molecules (15). Diche et al. in their study conducted in 1988 described the amyloid deposits occurring in an insulin-dependent diabetic patient and give the analytical finding of extracted amyloid fibril protein. A young man with type 1 diabetes mellitus developed a localized amyloidosis at the sites of the injections of insulin. This amyloid fibril was extracted and histopathology was conducted on the tissues. This was followed by immunohistochemistry, by staining proinsulin and an antiserum to insulin. The tissue was also homogenized to obtain amyloid fibrils and purify them (15). It was found that amyloids form by partial proteolysis of larger precursor molecules, which cases of localized amyloidosis, as seen in the diabetic patient, is expressed close to the site of deposition. The lower molecular weight fragment molecules spontaneously polymerize into fibrils. Amyloid P-component was also demonstrable in the deposits, as it has been in every other amyloid (15). Katebi et al. look at the potential of silibinin to interact and inhibit the amyloid formation in bovine insulin (insulin derived from a cow). It looks at the ability of insulin to attach to silibinin. It further looks at the protective effects of silibinin in the cell against the toxicity caused by the amyloid fibrils on neuroblastoma cells cancer formed in early forms of nerve cells (3, 6). It looks at the ability of insulin to attach to silibinin. It further looks at the protective effects of silibinin in the cell against the toxicity caused by the amyloid fibrils on neuroblastoma cells cancer formed in early forms of nerve cells (3, 6). The specific effect of silibinin on the fibrillation of bovine insulin was studied by using specific methods of amyloid detection using color assays. These assays are methods that use a dye to color the amyloid fibrils and observe the changes in it using a highly efficient microscope. The assays help in quantifying the change in the amyloid fibril formation under various conditions such as the different concentration of silibinin, or temperature difference (20, 21). It was found that higher doses of silibinin caused the inhibition of the amyloid fibril formation, in a given time. It was measured that the time taken for the formation of the first phase of the new structure or interaction increased from 2 hours to 4 hours in the presence of silibinin. This indicated that silibinin interferes in the early formation of the insulin complex, which increases the reliability of silibinin as an effective treatment. Impact of silibinin on the structural changes cause in insulin due to amyloid fibrils was studies using color assays. It was concluded that the presence of silibinin lowers the intensity of the color, which indicates that silibinin has inhibiting effects on structural changes in insulin due to the amyloid formation (3, 22). In the second part of the study, the protective effects of silibinin on insulin amyloid fibril that causes toxicity in cancer cells in nerves was analyzed. This was analyzed using an assay that acts a sensitive and reliable indicator of the cell metabolism. This assay analyzes the shift of a yellow based dye to purple based on the activity of a mitochondrial enzyme that helps in the removal of hydrogen from the cells. The assay was conducted as a cell viability test for the effect of silibinin on the amyloi d. It was concluded that cells exposed to silibinin at various concentrations did not show any evidence of toxicity in a 24 hour period (3, 23). The study gives important insights into the mechanism of amyloid fibril-induced neuronal cell death and the action of silibinin. It also emphasizes the potential application of silibinin to prevent the treatment of amyloid-related diseases like type II diabetes and Alzheimers. Amyloid fibrils are extensively known for its affect on major diseases like Alzheimers and diabetes, hence it is very important to understand their structure, and formation. Structure and formation not only provide a way to derive methods to stop their growth. With the help of isolation technique devised by Cohen and Calkins, scientist were able to further study structure and formation of amyloid fibrils. This further enabled them to understand in what ways do fibrils affect diabetes. Such studies help not only to provide a way for other scientists to replicate what has been already done but also pursue research t a higher level. By knowing the structure and characterization of the amyloid fibrils, Katebi et al . were able to understand the protective effects of silibinin on insulin amyloid fibrils.

The Area Of Interest, Livestock, Grazing, And Urban And...

Introduction The area of interest is located in the San Joaquin Valley, California, primarily in the western part of Fresno County, California. The primary land uses in the region are irrigated cropland, livestock, grazing, and urban and home development (USDA 2015). Other land uses include recreation and wildlife habitats. The land survey of the region consists of series of straight lines delineating fields of crops, typically running north to south. A series of squares dominates the aerial view of the region. The region experiences hot and dry summers with an average July high of 92 °F and has historically experienced cool and rainy winters with an average January low of 38 °F which normally lasts between November and April. However,†¦show more content†¦The rest of the area contains natural areas (trees shrubs) with 15.9% (1,928.1 acres) and water with 0.6% (73.7 acres). In 2014, the gross value of Fresno County agriculture production exceeded seven billion dollars. Almonds was t he number one crop at a value of $1.3 billion and grapes was a close second at $905 million (County of Fresno, Department of Agriculture 2015). Other important crops include poultry ($654 million), milk ($636 million), tomatoes ($524 million), pistachios ($378 million), garlic ($202 million), and cotton ($135 million). The diversity, high total acreage and crop yield are the result of favorable factors; the Mediterranean climate, long growing seasons, productive soils, and readily available and plentiful irrigation. Agricultural operations in the area have significant and permanent impact on the properties and management of the soils in the study area. Farming practices such as land leveling and irrigation impacts surface soils and deeper soil profiles due to the percolation of irrigation water. The current drought afflicting the region has increased the number of fallow acres steadily because of the relative unreliability of the water supply. The lack of surface water availability has forced farmers to turn more to groundwater to irrigate their crops. The pumping of water from deep wells and increased consumption of ground water contributes to ground subsidence which in turn, affects the geomorphology of the

The 14Th Dalai Lama Essay Research Paper free essay sample

The 14Th Dalai Lama Essay, Research Paper Research Paper November 12, 1999 The 14th Dalai Lama ? Dalai Lama? literally means ocean priest. His huge followings, awestruck by his presence, cast their eyes downward, autumn to the land and weep. They can non look straight in his eyes out of regard. The Dalai Lama realizes the magnitude of his place, but dismisses the devotion. His people call him? His Holiness. ? He calls himself a Tibetan who chooses to be a Buddhist monastic. He besides was leader of a state that Tibetans say is occupied and that Beijing says has ever been portion of China. He is considered the reincarnation of the old 13 Dalai Lamas of Tibet, the first born more than 640 old ages ago. This Dalai Lama is different from his predecessors, though. For case, the 13th Dalai Lama was rigorous and formal, and most Tibetans couldn? T get close to him except during public approval ceremonials. The 14th Dalai Lama meets frequently with Tibetans and aliens and neer keeps people at a distance. He is among 600 Tibetan Buddhist monastics populating in Dharamsala, in northern India. About 7,000 of the 24,000 who live in this metropolis are Tibetans, with the greatest concentration in the small town of McLeod Ganj? the place of Tibet? s government-in- expatriate. The Chinese occupied Tibet in 1950. For nine old ages, the Dalai Lama tried to negociate peaceable coexistence with his people and the Chinese. When that failed, he fled in 1959 to India, where he set up Tibet? s government-in-exile. Lhamo Thondup was born July 6, 1935, to peasant husbandmans in Taktser, a hapless colony on a hill overlooking a wide vale in northeasterly Tibet. Buddhist priests from Lhasa, Tibet? s capital, came for the male child when he was 2. Omens led them to him: from the manner the caput of the 13th Dalai Lama had turned in his casket toward the kid? s small town, to the vision of the house seen in a lake by a high priest. The male child was renamed Jamphel Ngawang Lobsang Yeshe Tenzin Gyatso and raised by monastics in Lhasa in the 1,000-room Potala castle, where the fifth through the present Dalai Lamas resided. As a male child, he had no thought what it meant to be the 14th Dalai Lama? the swayer of the land hidden behind the Himalayas. He was tutored in Buddhist instructions. At 15, with his state under menace from the freshly communist China, he officially became caput of Tibet, which is about three times the size of California. At that clip in 1950, peace in Tibet was shattered when 84,000 Chinese soldiers launched an onslaught at six points along Tibet? s boundary line. Chinese functionaries say communism liberated the downtrodden Tibetan people from a feudal theocracy harshly ruled by a sequence of Dalai Lamas. But many Tibetans say communism neer was attractive for them, and they ever considered the regulation of the Dalai Lama benevolent. Fearful of being captured by the Chinese and believing he would be more effectual outside Tibet, the Dalai Lama fled at age 24 across 17,000-foot Himalayan passes into India. Together with the 70-man leftover of the Tibetan authorities, he was given political refuge. He chose India for its propinquity to his fatherland, and Tibetans felt a religious affinity with their neighbours because Buddhism originated in India. Buddhism teaches people to extinguish agony caused by ignorance, self-importance and self- centeredness. Buddhists cultivate morality, generousness, forbearance, energy, wisdom and speculation. They believe good actions lead to a promising metempsychosis. Tibet was the lone topographic point where Buddhist monks entirely ruled the state. Leaderships were thought to be embodiments of enlightened existences, and they taught others how to quiet their heads and cultivate selflessness. Tibetans say they lived peacefully until the Chinese invaded their state. Since so, 1.2 million people # 8212 ; 20 per centum of the Tibetan population? have died in combat and through monolithic dearths from collectivized agriculture and recreation of Tibetan grain to China. The Chinese gutted all but 10 of Tibet? s 6,254 monasteries, and their hoarded wealth # 8212 ; $ 80 billion in jeweled, gold, Ag and bronze statues and other sanctum points? was trucked back to China and subsequently sold in markets in Hong Kong and Tokyo. Still, the Dalai Lama, 1989 Nobel Peace Prize victor for his non-violent pursuit to liberate his fatherland, doesn? t hate the Chinese. He considers compassion as a agency to recover Tibet? s liberty. Leaderships of Tibet? s government-in-exile have lived since 1960 in Dharamsala, a hill station in Himlach Pradesh, India, 125 stat mis from Tibet? s boundary line. From the centre of Dharamsala, there? s a hair-raising ascent up 1000s of pess along narrow roads that twist to the small town of McLeod Ganj. Tibetans live there under India? s regulations, but they? rhenium permitted their quasi-government. The Dalai Lama drafted a fundamental law in 1963, leting Tibetans throughout the universe to be elected representatives of the government-in-exile. He has established an independent bench, an hearer? s office and other sections. He no longer has concluding say on all governmental affairs and can be impeached. Populating in Dharamsala in the sixtiess and? 70s was hard for the Tibetans because it was isolated. Construction of a little airdrome and installing of a telephone system have improved conditions, the Dalai Lama says. Up the mountain is the Tibetan Children? s Village, run by one of the Dalai Lama? s sisters. It houses and educates about 1,500 childs, many refugees. Its subdivisions throughout India serve 5,500 or so more kids. The Dalai Lama sometimes visits the small town and elsewhere, but the bulk of his clip in Dharamsala is spent praying, chew overing and analyzing. He reads Bibles, surveies philosophy and frequently prays with other Tibetan Buddhist monastics. He besides pores over official documents, listens to the BBC World Service on the wireless and reads magazines like Newsweek and Time and newspapers such as The Times of India and The Hindustan Times. Many people told Tibetans in the sixtiess that their pursuit for freedom was hopeless, the Dalai Lama says. With political alterations in the former Soviet Union and East Germany, he believes Tibetan freedom International Relations and Security Network? T that far-fetched. Obstacles remain before Tibetans have political and societal freedom in their fatherland, the Dalai Lama says. The old Chinese Communist leaders are in their 80s, and he believes the first coevals of revolutionists still respect and obey the authorities government. Even with no marks of political liberalisation, the Communist Party? s free market reforms have improved the Tibetan economic system and quenched agitation. And many Chinese sympathize with the Tibetan freedom motion, the D alai Lama says. Once the current Chinese leaders are gone, ? so I don? t see any obstruction. ? In 1963, His Holiness promulgated a democratic fundamental law, based on Buddhist rules and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, as a theoretical account for a future free Tibet. Since so, the Dalai Lama has been the most vigorous advocator for the refugee # 8217 ; s ain democratic experiment, while systematically reaffirming his desire non to keep political office one time Tibet regains its independency. The Dalai Lama continues to show new enterprises to decide the Tibetan issue. At the Congressional Human Rights Caucus in 1987, he proposed a Five-Point Peace Plan as a first measure toward deciding the hereafter position of Tibet. This program called for the appellation of Tibet as a zone of non-violence, an terminal to the monolithic transportation of Chinese into Tibet, Restoration of cardinal human rights and democratic freedoms, and the forsaking of China # 8217 ; s usage of Tibet for atomic arms production and the dumping of atomic waste, every bit good as pressing # 8220 ; earnest dialogues # 8221 ; on the hereafter of Tibet. The Dalai Lama continued what he viewed as the most realistic attempt to make a autonomous democratic Tibet. His proposal, made in Strasbourg, France in 1988, included the adjustment of China # 8217 ; s ain involvements while continuing the Tibetan peoples # 8217 ; ultimate authorization in organizing their authorities. However, the Dalai Lama faced a closed and negative attitude from the Chinese leading in response to his attempts, doing him to declare the Strasbourg Proposal as no longer adhering in 1991. His travels have taken him to Brazil, England, Switzerland and the United States, where he met with President George Bush in April 1991. That meeting ended a 30-year American boycott of the Tibetan leader. The United States neer has officially recognized Tibet, sing it portion of China. The Dalai Lama has met with several major caputs of province every bit good as other senior political, spiritual, cultural and concern leaders to talk on his belief in the unity of the human household and the demand for each person to develop a sense of cosmopolitan duty. In October, 1989, during a duologue with eight rabbis and bookmans from the United States in Dharamsala, The Dalai Lama said, # 8220 ; When we became refugees, we knew our battle would non be easy ; it would take a long clip, coevalss. Very frequently we would mention to the Judaic people, how they kept their individuality and faith despite such adversity and so much agony. And, when external conditions were mature they were ready to reconstruct their state. So you see, there are many things to larn from our Judaic brothers and sisters. # 8221 ; His negotiations in other forums focused on the commonalty of religions and the demand for integrity among different faiths: # 8220 ; I ever believe that it is much better to hold a assortment of faiths, a assortment of doctrines, instead than one individual faith or doctrine. This is necessary because of the different mental temperaments of each human being. Each faith has certain alone thoughts or techniques, and larning about them can merely enrich one # 8217 ; s ain faith. # 8221 ; The Dalai Lama has received legion honorary doctors degrees from Universities worldwide. In 1989, he received The Nobel Peace Prize in Oslo, Norway. The Norse Nobel Committee emphasized the Dalai Lama # 8217 ; s consistent resistance of the usage of force in Tibet # 8217 ; s battle for freedom and remarked that, # 8220 ; The Dalai Lama has developed his doctrine of peace from a great fear for all things populating and upon the construct of cosmopolitan duty encompassing all world every bit good as nature # 8230 ; [ he ] has come frontward with constructive and advanced proposals for the solution of international struggles, human rights issues and planetary environmental problems. # 8221 ; Despite his great accomplishments, the Dalai Lama remains modest, frequently stating # 8220 ; I am merely a simple Buddhist monk # 8212 ; no more, no less. # 8221 ; While contending for peace and freedom for his people and others, His Holiness has authored many books. Some intended to learn others to state narratives. Ancient Wisdom, Modern World # 8211 ; Ethical motives for a New Millennium is the latest book by His Holiness the Dalai Lama and his first major publication in recent old ages. In this work, His Holiness calls for a revolution # 8211 ; non a political, an economic, a proficient or even a spiritual revolution, but a religious revolution to assist us through the moral labyrinth of modern life. Awakening the Mind, Lightening the Heart is a practical direction book on developing compassion in our day-to-day lives through simple speculations that straight relate to past and present relationships. Cultivating a Daily Meditation includes two discourses in which His Holiness touches upon the indispensable points of the Dharma and provides a clear and simple method to cultivate a day-to-day pattern of speculation. He besides explains how we should continue in the attempt to bring forth both the bosom of compassion and the expansive position of emptiness in our day-to-day life. Dalai Lama # 8217 ; s Small Book of Wisdom is an inspirational volume offering encouragement to anyone seeking a more peaceable and liberating manner of life. Here the Dalai Lama portions his position on such digesting subjects as love, faith, justness, human rights, poorness, cultural struggle and protection of the environment. Freedom in Exile: The Autobiography of the Dalai Lama of Tibet is an updated a utobiography following the award of the Nobel Peace Prize, in which the Dalai Lama talks freely of his life and the tragic narrative of Tibet, and besides discusses modern-day issues. The Dalai Lama is a adult male who believes and patterns in universe peace, felicity, interior balance, and freedom. Bringing peace and freedom to Tibet and to the universe has been the Dalai Lama? s life for the last many old ages. Writing books, sing Presidents and functionaries, and buttonholing for his cause has become what he is. What I believe is that His Holiness is a great adult male. He is a adult male who has lived in expatriate for decennaries but has non given up his cause of emancipating himself and his people. He teaches about a planetary community, where all states of our planet would populate and be with and for each other, in harmoniousness. Compassion is another thing His Holiness Teachs, to populate and care for others. I am non and may neer be a practicing Buddhist, but in my bosom and in myself I will ever believe that the Dalai Lama is one of the greatest work forces of all time to walk the Earth. In our universe where aggression, struggle and force strain hatre d for our fellow adult male, how of import is a adult male such as the Dalai Lama whose instructions involve love, compassion and peace.

Near Term Future of Terrorism in the U.S free essay sample

What is the terrorist group most likely to strike within the United States in the next five years? What method or means will this group probably use to carry out the attack and what is the most effective means of countering the attack? Near-Term Future of Terrorism in the U. S. 2 Abstract Terrorists are likely to use a weapon of mass destruction somewhere in the world in the next five years. We will write a custom essay sample on Near Term Future of Terrorism in the U.S or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page They are more likely to use a biological weapon than a nuclear one and the results could be devastating. The consequences of a biological attack are almost beyond comprehension. It would be 9/11 times 10 or a hundred in terms of the number of people who would be killed, according to Senator Bob Graham. Near-Term Future of Terrorism in the U. S. 3 An investigation by the US Congress into weapons of mass destruction made a chilling prediction of terrorists mounting an attack using biological or nuclear weapons within the next five years. The six month inquiry mentioned Pakistan as one of the likeliest sources of such an attack. The target could be the U. S. or some other part of the world. The report by the bipartisan Commission on the Prevention of Weapons of Mass Destruction, said â€Å"unless the world community acts decisively and with great urgency, it is more likely than not that a weapon of mass destruction will be used in a terrorist attack somewhere in the world by the end of 2013†. Terrorists are more likely to be able to obtain and use a biological weapon than a nuclear weapon. An overwhelming majority believes that there is a significant likelihood of further terrorist attacks on U. S. soil and expresses concern and worry about the prospect. About half worry that a close friend or relative will be a victim of an attack, but only a minority are concerned that it would happen in their community. The onset of military action in Afghanistan has not led to notable changes in these attitudes. Though traditional attacks, such as truck bombs, are seen as the most likely terrorist threat, the majority believes that terrorists have access to weapons of mass destruction and are likely to use them at some point. Of these weapons, chemical and biological agents are seen as a greater danger than nuclear arms, and concern about a chemical or biological attack has grown over the past weeks. Americans have been fairly pessimistic about the prospect of eliminating terrorist attacks for some time. Today’s terrorists can strike at any place, at any time and with virtually any weapon. But if it is so easy to pull off an attack and if terrorists are so demonically competent, why have they not Near-Term Future of Terrorism in the U. S. 4 done it? Why have they not been sniping at people in shopping centers, collapsing tunnels, poisoning the food supply, cutting electrical lines, derailing trains, blowing up oil pipelines, causing massive traffic jams, or exploiting the countless other vulnerabilities that, according to security experts, could so easily be exploited. One reasonable explanation is that almost no terrorists exist in the United States and few have the means or the inclination to strike from abroad. However, this explanation is rarely offered. Instead, Americans are often told by the same people who had once predicted imminent attacks that the absence of international terrorist strikes in the United States is owed to the protective measures so hastily and expensively put in place after 9/11. For the past five years, Americans have been regularly regaled with dire predictions of another major Al Qaeda attack in the United States. In 2003, a group of 200 senior government officials and business executives, many of them specialists in security and terrorism, pronounced it likely that a terrorism strike more devastating than 9/11. The leadership of this country and the world will have to decide how much of a priority they place on avoiding the worst weapons in the world getting in the hands of the worst people in the world. It is not going to be cheap. It is not going to be accomplished without some sacrifices. It won’t be accomplished without putting this issue ahead of some other competing national and international goals. However, I think our safety and security depend upon doing so. A biological attack is more likely than a nuclear attack because biological weapons are more available, according to a CNN panel. Anthrax is a natural product of dead animals. Other serious pathogens are available in equally accessible forms. There are so many scientists who have the skills to convert a pathogen from benign, helpful purposes into an illicit, very harmful weapon. However, the commission warned that there is also Near-Term Future of Terrorism in the U. S. 5 a threat of nuclear terrorism, both because more countries are developing nuclear weapons and because some existing nuclear powers are expanding their arsenals. Terrorist organizations are intent on acquiring nuclear weapons. It cited testimony before the commission from former Senator Sam Nunn, who said that the risk of a nuclear weapon being used today is growing, not receding. The risk from biological or nuclear weapons was higher than skeptical foreign policy and defense analysts have so far suggested. Those analysts had pointed out to the complexity of transporting such weapons and the limitations of a nuclear dirty bomb, whose radius of damage is minimum compared with missile delivered warheads. The report disagreed, saying that no mission could be timelier. The simple reality is that the risks that confront us today are evolving faster than our multi layered responses. Many thousands of dedicated people across all agencies of our government are working hard to protect this country, and their efforts have had a positive impact. However, the terrorists have been active, too and in our judgment America’s margin of safety is shrinking, not growing. Despite all the ominous warnings of wily terrorists and imminent attacks, there has been neither a successful strike nor a close call in the United States since 9/11. The reasonable, but rarely heard explanation is that there are no terrorists within the United States, and few have the means or the inclination to strike from abroad.